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Disease, Health, and Aging Research Paper - iResearchNet
This sample Surveillance of Disease Research Paper is published for educational and disease research paper example purposes only. If you need help writing your assignment, please use our research paper writing service and buy a paper on any topic at affordable price. Also check our tips on how to write a research papersee the lists of health research paper topicsand browse research paper examples. In civil society, police and security systems are alert to abnormal incidents that may cause hazards in communities, nations, and perhaps the world.
The information discovered and assembled by this system is transmitted to an authority responsible for setting up measures to eliminate the cause of hazard. In the early twentieth century, disease research paper example, information gathering on infectious diseases and other hazards to humans was developed in parallel with the development of microbiological technology and epidemiology.
The data thus collected were analyzed and disease research paper example results were distributed to systems and individuals responsible for control actions. Epidemiological surveillance was the beginning of a new era of infectious disease control. In recent years, surveillance activities have been expanded from infectious diseases to chronic diseases disease research paper example automobile accidents and other injuries; in addition, long-term data collection such as vital statistics and surveillance of health-related social or economic activities have been surveyed systematically.
In this research paper, we discuss surveillance systems and activities on which public health control action is based. Around the mid-twentieth century when infectious diseases were a major problem and menace to public health, two medical experts attempted to set up surveillance as an essential component of public health practice.
Alexander Langmuir, from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDCdeveloped systematic surveillance mechanisms for infectious diseases and associated control programs, disease research paper example. Inhe outlined surveillance as: 1 systematic and active collection of pertinent data of target disease s ; 2 assessment and practical report of these data; and 3 the timely dispatch of such reports to individuals responsible for formulation of action plans. It is important to note that surveillance would not be useful unless data are known and acted upon by individuals responsible for initiating action plans.
A surveillance system, in principle, does not include the control measures within its system, disease research paper example. A surveillance system is better if it is independent from the control disease research paper example, because experience has shown that on some occasions, disease prevalence was artificially modified by individuals who were responsible for control measures and sought to gain seemingly better results than what was actually occurring.
He promoted a surveillance study, for example by strengthening smallpox surveillance and approving special research funds to the newly intensified eradication program in ; malaria surveillance was intensified when the effectiveness of malaria control was demonstrated with investigation of malaria prevalence rates in patients using or not using mosquito disease research paper example. In the area of public health practice, we may disease research paper example to rethink the boundary of surveillance systems.
It may be wise not to expand it to a broad investigation or epidemiological research, disease research paper example, which certainly interests many researchers or health officers but does not lead to practical public health action to reduce immediate hazard or risk. Thus, the surveillance tool as a public health action may be further refined and solidified.
The latest challenge in surveillance has been in terrorism, exemplified when a terrorist group attacked facilities in the United States, Spain, and England in recent years. Anthrax was also used as a bioweapon in the United States. Surveillance against bioterrorism with smallpox virus, Bacillus anthracis, and other agents is now being developed in the West. The target diseases for surveillance are key to defining the sensitivity, specificity, effectiveness, and efficiency of the systems used.
Fever and rash diseases such as measles and chickenpox or neurologic diseases such as poliomyelitis or meningococcal meningitis may be discovered or suspected readily by surveillance and allied workers: Such reportable diseases require clinical and laboratory confirmation by experienced workers.
Certain principles underlie identification of target diseases. Usually surveillance systems aim at a particular disease or only a limited number of diseases, disease research paper example. Those who work for surveillance should have clear ideas of clinical pictures, mode of transmission and its infectivity. On the other hand, populations may be pleased to collaborate with surveillance, willingly reporting the target diseases. Sometimes, the target disease can be reported to surveillance workers only as symptoms, such as jaundice for hepatitis Bacute flaccid paralysis poliomyelitisdisease research paper example, and confirmation can be made after reporting.
The surveillance system usually is set up as a distinct section or organization within the national or regional health service system and has an independent function as described in the previous section. The method or function may consist of the two main functions discussed in the next sections. The main reporters are villagers or town inhabitants or health workers in a dispensary or private clinic contacting or seeing the patients with the target diseases.
It is important that there be a public relations campaign through radio, television, the press, etc. to encourage reporting the disease to the nearest health center or some designated office, which will transmit the report to the supervisory level, as shown in Figure 1. Disease research paper example main reporters in this system are hospital physicians who diagnose the diseases. The advantage of this system is that if hospitals are fully cooperative, surveillance coverage is good.
The hospital may need to assign a physician to take responsibility for such reporting, disease research paper example. Needless to say, the hospital administration should be fully informed and understand the importance of such surveillance. Nosocomial or hospital-induced, infection is a special surveillance target within hospitals to be handled by a special hospital committee.
The hospital administration should be aware of the occurrence of nosocomial infections and work to develop its control. Both community and hospital-based surveillance systems are in principle passive. If the health service controlling the surveillance report urgently needs a special report, it can organize active surveillance in which special teams are formed to make house-to-house or hospital-to-hospital visits to determine the occurrence of the disease either through direct communication with community members or hospital personnel and seeing the patients or examining the hospital records or the patients on location.
Effective surveillance requires innovative ideas to augment its sensitivity. Reward is, in certain circumstances, a useful method for a health service to express the importance of reporting to the public. For example, a reward system was utilized to encourage reporting in many countries such as India and Somalia during the smallpox eradication program — Indisease research paper example, when a probable world last case was discovered in Africa, disease research paper example, WHO encouraged people or medical personnel throughout the world to report Figure 2.
The announcement was followed by many smallpox reports from West Africa, Indonesia, even Heathrow and Kennedy airports. All such reports were investigated by the WHO team with negative results. Surveillance certainly receives positive reports of the target diseases, but often it is also important to receive nil reports indicating positive assurance that the disease did not occur during a particular time period such as a week.
In other words, regular nil reports indicate that sensitive surveillance is continuing. The nil report is useful to see the situation of specifically suspected areas of occurrence such as influenza that may become pandemic or a dangerous pathogen requiring immediate action for public health measures in high-risk areas. Incomplete surveillance reports include mistaken reports due to the incompetence of technical personnel, active concealment of disease occurrence, or the combination of these two causes.
Although these look like anecdotal episodes or events during surveillance, they often considerably influence the success or failure of control measures, which require high-quality surveillance data. Particularly if such incomplete surveillance reports are made intentionally by health authorities, the results may become disastrous. Examples include the smallpox epidemic in the Horn of Africa during the last phase of the global smallpox eradication program in —77, and the early phase of epidemics of severe acute respiratory syndrome SARS in East Asia, which subsequently formed a pandemic on other continents.
How should such incomplete surveillance reports be treated? No standard remedy has been found so far. There have been trial and error attempts such as practical dialogue, development disease research paper example collaborative research, political pressure and recommendation from a higher authority, and emphasis on moral obligation.
Experience has shown that such incomplete surveillance reports from health services in the area or nation concerned often cause disastrous results that end in failing to control the epidemics thus incorrectly reported. Surveillance requires the collaboration of laboratories to confirm the diagnosis if initial reports are based on clinical diagnosis alone. Laboratory diagnostic measures may not be needed in some instances.
For example, if there is a large number of cases with similar clinical manifestations, laboratory testing of only cases that are representative of the outbreaks may be satisfactory, disease research paper example, provided that missing the correct diagnosis of other cases does not pose significant risk in developing control measures.
This may be applicable disease research paper example determining containment of outbreaks with vaccination in the case of measles outbreaks, a hepatitis A outbreak, etc. The interval between the time the specimen is taken and the time when laboratory results are available to the surveillance office should be carefully determined, depending on the type of specimen testing such as serology, isolation, and disease research paper example tests such as strain differentiation.
The reliability of the testing technique should always be assured with periodic assessment of the laboratory technique and testing the suitability of reagents by a reference laboratory, disease research paper example.
For surveillance of specific diseases such as poliomyelitis, measles, or influenza, international reference laboratories have been designated by WHO.
In addition, national reference laboratories can be set up for collaboration by the individual government as the need arises. Figure 3 shows the special collection kits that were used for safe and easy handling of specimens during the WHO smallpox eradication program — Some nations that do not have the appropriate laboratory facilities may be assisted by nearby reference disease research paper example, often through an arrangement with WHO, disease research paper example.
Safe measures for transportation of infectious specimens and infectious substance label are shown in Figure 4. Surveillance data collected and confirmed for its accuracy may be sorted by three major elements throughout the process at peripheral and central levels. Specimen collection date and patient dates reflecting information such as date of occurrence, course of clinical picture, etc.
are necessary. Standard tabulation includes case serial number and deaths by week number 1 to 51 or Monthly or daily records are also used, but weekly records are convenient, since the WHO Weekly Epidemiological Record WER and the US CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report MMWRetc.
use week disease research paper example for easy reference. Usually, disease research paper example, the disease research paper example of occurrence of the disease is the important date. The date of receipt of the report at health services is recorded to indicate the efficacy of the reporting system in some geographical areas. It is important to record the geographical areas where cases occurred or disease research paper example discovered.
Usually the place where the case occurred is important because there is the risk of spread. The movement of patients before the onset of the disease and during the course of the disease is also important to estimate the source of infection as well as the potential spread of the disease.
This information is sorted and collated to form a report that will be sent to the system or individuals who plan and initiate control disease research paper example. Additionally, the information is further analyzed with simple statistical methods or elaborated mathematical methods Figure 5. Figure 6 shows co-relation between HIV prevalence and malaria mortality. Disease research paper example are discussed elsewhere. It is important to stress that simple raw data from sensitive surveillance are very useful for planners to initiate strategy formation.
For example, global surveillance on certain diseases may have certain weaknesses because adequate information is not available from areas because of political unrest, disease research paper example, disinterest, poorly developed infrastructure, etc. The Agency for Cooperation in International Health ACIHa Japanese nongovernmental organization, has developed a voluntary sentinel surveillance system for selected target diseases, covering South America, Africa, and Asia.
Its aim is to add more disease information and thus contribute to global epidemiological surveillance headed by WHO. The AGSnet Alumni for Global Surveillance network was organized in It consists of selected experts and managers who participated in several infectious-disease courses that were sponsored by the Japan Disease research paper example Cooperation Agency JICA and organized by ACIH.
As of Maythe group consisted of 59 sentinel sites in 32 countries Figure 7. Sentinels are divided into three categories: Hospitals and clinics, laboratories, and blood transfusion centers. Feedback from ACIH consists of selected epidemic information in the media and WHO and various surveillance articles published by medical journals. Despite a limited geographical coverage, the system seems to supplement disease information being obtained by global surveillance, as described in Table 1.
The system has found unreported infectious diseases of international importance, including cholera, plague, disease research paper example, and influenza.
The surveillance data on prevalence of hepatitis B and C, HIV, disease research paper example, and syphilis in blood donors from blood transfusion centers is unique, not usually available in the global surveillance network. It should be noted, however, that such a network in no way replaces or negates the need for strong national surveillance and alert and response mechanisms.
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Check out this awesome Peptic Ulcer Disease Research Papers Examples for writing techniques and actionable ideas. Regardless of the topic, subject or complexity, we can help you write any paper! View sample disease, health, and aging research paper. Browse research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a psychology research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance Graves’ Disease - Graves’ Disease research papers examine the autoimmune disease that affects the thyroid gland, resulting in hyperthyroidism and an enlarged thyroid. Hashimoto's Disease - Hashimoto's disease research papers discuss the autoimmune disease also known as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
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